Elsevier

Advances in Agronomy

Volume 133, 2015, Pages 113-181
Advances in Agronomy

Chapter Four - Potential and Challenges of Rainfed Farming in India

https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2015.05.004Get rights and content

Abstract

India ranks first in rainfed agriculture globally in both area (86 Mha) and the value of produce. Rainfed regions in India contribute substantially toward food grain production including 44% of rice, 87% of coarse cereals (sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), maize (Zea mays)), and 85% of food legumes, 72% of oilseeds, 65% of cotton, and 90% of minor millets. Overall, the rainfed areas produce 40% of the food grains, support two-thirds of the livestock population, and are critical to food security, equity, and sustainability.

India is home to 18% of world's population, 15% of the world livestock, 4.2% of fresh water resources, 1% of forests, and 0.5% of pasture land, but only has 2.3% of the geographical area. India is home to 25% of the world's hungry population of ∼1 billion along with an estimated 43% of children malnourished under the age of five. The net sown area in India has remained constant for several years at 141 Mha, but the human and livestock populations have been steadily increasing. Though the Indian population increased from 361 million in 1951 to 1140 million in 2011, tripling over 60 years, the food-grain production has more than quadrupled, but the yield gains are largely from the irrigated agroecosystems. Notwithstanding the increase in average productivity from 0.6 Mg ha−1 in the 1980s to 1.1 Mg ha−1 at the present time, large yield gaps exist for rainfed crops in the semiarid regions. Even after realizing the full irrigation potential, nearly 40% of the net sown area of 141 Mha will remain totally rainfed. The per capita availability of land has fallen drastically from 2.4 ha in 1951 to about 0.32 ha in 2001; and it is projected to decline further to 0.09 ha by 2050. Increasing productivity of rainfed cropping systems is of critical importance to meet the food demands of an ever-increasing population in India.

The potential productivity of maize (Z. mays) in high rainfall regions under rainfed condition is 8.0 Mg ha−1 vis-a-vis the national average yield of 2.1 Mg ha−1, indicating an unbridged yield gap of ∼6 Mg ha−1. Large yield gaps exist in other crops as well which are primarily grown under rainfed conditions. Recommended management practices (RMPs) such as improved cultivars, site specific nutrient management (precision agriculture), and water harvesting and recycling can potentially increase the yields in several crops up to 6 Mg ha−1, indicating the large realizable potential under rainfed conditions. There are many districts in India where the actual yields are much lower than the national average, and there is enormous potential for improvement. The objective of this article is to discuss the production potentials and the yield gaps of predominant crops grown under rainfed conditions in India, biotic and abiotic constraints, and RMPs for realizing the potentials.

Introduction

Rainfed agriculture constitutes 80% of global agriculture, and plays a critical role in achieving global food security. However, growing world population, water scarcity, and climate change threaten rainfed farming through increased vulnerability to droughts and other extreme weather events. Out of the total population of 7.3 billion, about 1 billion are food-insecure, and 60% of these live in South Asia (SA) and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The importance of rainfed agriculture varies regionally, but it produces most food for poor communities in developing countries. The proportion of rainfed agriculture is 95% in SSA, 90% in Latin America, 60% in SA, 65% in East Asia, and 75% in Near East and North Africa (FAO, 2003). Most of the food-insecure people are in Asia and the Pacific (578 million), followed by those in SSA, Latin America and the Caribbean, Near East and North Africa, and the lowest in developed countries (19 million). Agriculture in India has been a mainstay for growing population over millennia. It has been a major source of employment in India, with 72.4% in 1952 and 52.1% in 2014. Rapid growth of industrial and service sectors outpaced growth of agricultural sector since the 1990s. Nonetheless, there is no alternative to agriculture to feed and fulfill the needs of growing population. The population of India may reach 1.34, 1.39, and 1.81 billion in 2020, 2025, and 2050, representing 17.5%, 17.3%, and 19.0% of the world population, respectively (Figure 1).

Population of India varies widely among states and districts. In predominantly rainfed regions of the southern plateau, central, western, and eastern parts, population density is as high as 1000 persons km−2. The per capita land availability is low in India as compared to many other countries (e.g., Canada, Russia, USA, and Brazil). The per capita land availability has declined from about 2.4 ha during 1970–1971 to 0.29 ha during 2010–2011 (Figure 2), and will decline further in years to come.

India is also facing the biggest challenge of meeting the food demands by increasing the production (per unit land) simultaneously without degrading the soil and water resources and maintaining a favorable ecological balance. In recent years, there is a general trend of reduction in per capita consumption of food grains and increase in the consumption of livestock products and vegetables. Despite decline in the food grain consumption because of the dietary shift, there is no substitute for cereals and pulses which are the staple foods, and the most economic sources of energy and protein and vital for nutrition of poor people. Hence, greater production of food grains is essential to meet the dietary needs in the near future. The demand for cereals is projected to grow from 185 million metric ton (Mt) in 1944–1995 to 270(Mt) in 2024–2025 (Table 1).

Demand for milk and milk products are projected to increase to 141.5 Mt and those of vegetables to 127.2 Mt by 2020–2021 (Table 2). These demands must be met from the limited land area of only 2.5% of the global geographical area. Domestic production of all these food commodities must be increased at the rate of (% year−1) 2 for cereals and pulses, 6 for oilseeds, 0.9 for vegetables, 2.4 for milk, and around 3.5 for fish and egg. Growth rates required for cereals, pulses, and oilseeds exceed those achieved during the last decade. Thus, new and innovative strategies must be identified and implemented for increasing the production of cereals, pulses, oilseeds, and the projected food demand must come from increasing production of the rainfed agriculture, because there is little potential of expansion in irrigated area.

Despite the historic success of increasing production since the Green Revolution of 1960s, even greater challenges lie ahead. India's per capita availability of agricultural land declined to 0.3 ha per farmer compared to over 1.4 ha in the developed world. At the same time, population has more than doubled since 1970s to 1.21 billion, raising concerns about India's ability to feed its growing and increasingly affluent population. Therefore, the rapid growth of agriculture is essential not only for self-reliance but also for advancing the food and nutritional security of the people, to bring about equitable distribution of income and wealth in rural areas, to alleviate poverty and improve the quality of life. Production potential of crops particularly under rainfed conditions depends on the resource endowments of the region and the management practices adopted. Systematic efforts have been made for development of location specific technologies since 1970s with the establishment of All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA) system and several technologies have been developed which have potential to increase the crop productivity significantly. Comprehensive information about the production potential of predominant rainfed crops in diverse soil orders of India and the yield gaps is lacking. Little efforts were made to quantify the yield gaps and factors contributing across rainfed production systems which are diverse in terms of rainfall, soils, and ecology. The potential for yield enhancement and the constraints for achieving the potential yields in different soil orders of rainfed systems have been discussed which will be useful for enhancing the productivity in similar regions of the world and for scaling up of successful practices through various area-based developmental programs from rainfed regions.

Section snippets

Climate

With diverse climate, India has a high spatial and temporal variability in rainfall and temperature (Rao et al., 2010). Thus, rainfed farming systems are practiced in regions of strong climate contrasts. For example, southern Tamil Nadu experiences typical tropical temperatures with north-east monsoon being the main source of rainfall, whereas Punjab and Haryana in north-western India experience continental climates with extremes of temperatures varying from 45–50 °C in summer and near freezing

Frequent Droughts

Droughts and famines are the general features of rainfed agriculture in India. Conceptually, drought is indicative of situation of limited rainfall that is below the “normal” amount for the area (Pandey and Bhandari, 2007). The perception of drought varies from one region to another depending upon normal climatic conditions, available water resources, agricultural practices, and the specific socioeconomic activities of the region (Prasad, 1998). The risk involved in successful cultivation of

Cropping Patterns

Predominant rainfed crops grown in India include: coarse cereals (85%), pulses (83%), oilseeds (70%), and cotton (65%). In arid regions, single crop system involving a long fallow period (October to June) is a rule rather than an exception. Mixed or intercropping is common as a means of insurance and risk minimization. A large proportion of Vertisols in the semiarid region are left fallow during the rainy season due to water logging and drainage problem. A postrainy season crop is raised on the

Soil Management

Soils hold the key for enhancing productivity and improving resilience against harsh climate in rainfed agriculture in India. Loss of fertile soil by erosion, depletion of SOM, emerging deficiencies of secondary and micronutrients, high soil compaction, surface crusting, loss of soil biodiversity are among strong limiting factors to productivity enhancement of rainfed agriculture in India. Thus, improved soil management systems must take into account not only the constraints associated with the

Conclusions

The importance of rainfed agriculture varies regionally, but rainfed areas produce most food for poor communities in developing countries. Although irrigated production has made a higher contribution to Indian food production (especially during the Green Revolution), rainfed agriculture still produces about 60% of total cereals and plays an important role. In India, rainfed regions contribute substantially toward food grain production and 58% of total net sown area is rainfed spread over 177

Acknowledgments

Authors are thankful to Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) for research facilities and funding for on-station and on-farm research under All India Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture (AICRPDA).

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