© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
__________________________________________________________________________
TOURISM MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING IN TRANSFORMATION: PREFACE
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TOURISM MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING
Dimitrios Buhalis
2022
Dedicated to the memory of my mother Stella
who departed this life during this journey.
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
TOURISM MANAGEMENT
AND MARKETING IN TRANSFORMATION
PREFACE
Smart strategies should lead to tourism
transformation, supportng sustainable
development and inclusive societies.
The Encyclopedia of Tourism Management
and Marketing brings together the global
scientific community to support tourism in
its transformation. It integrates existing
tourism research, knowledge and
expertise. Knowedge is critical for tourism
and sharing sources can help readers to
explore further on the different aspects
covered. The Encyclopedia aims to
synthesise the tourism management and
marketing bibliography in order to provide
support to practical problems, stimulate
further
research
and
knowledge
cocreation. It provides a solid reference for
academics, students and global tourism
sector’s practitioners by provindg a one
stop shop resource of exant knowledge
and expertise. The Encyclopedia provides
access to accumulated research and
expertise to enhance best practice and
competitiveness. It also serves as a vehicle
to stimulate and enhance collaborative
practices focused on smart sustainable
tourism strategies.
The Encyclopedia of Tourism Management
and Marketing supports the achievement
of Agenda 2030 for Sustainable
Development and related Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) by reflecting on
some of the key issues, challenges,
opportunities and requirements for the
global tourism industry to restart better
after the COVID-19 pandemic. Hitherto,
tourism is still primarily a developed world
activity, almost exclusively reserved for the
affluent and the upper middle class. When
exploring developing and emerging
economies, in Asia, Africa and South
America, and in many regions of the world
(including poor regions in developed and
affluent countries) poverty means the local
population struggles to survive. “While
global poverty rates have been cut by more
than half since 2000, one in ten people in
developing regions still lives on less than
US$ 1.90 a day - the internationally agreed
poverty line, and millions of others live on
slightly more than this daily amount.
Significant progress has been made in
many countries within Eastern and
Southeastern Asia, but up to 42% of the
population
in
Sub-Saharan
Africa
continues to live below the poverty line”
(UN,2020). It is a responsibility of global
society to reduce poverty and hunger and
support the participation for all.
Smart sustainable tourism strategies is
here intended as applying evidence-based
tourism management and marketing
knowledge, that will facilitate the
propagation of best practices in tourism
management and marketing. Innovative
and forward-thinking, but also pragmatic
interventions are needed to ensure a
sustainable transformation of the sector.
The implementation of such practices
should facilitate the cocreation of value for
all stakeholders, adhering to ethical
principles and ensuring the welfare of all
that are involved - from academia to
industry players, destination residents and
consumers.
Global tourism is an agent of change and
has the potential to contribute, directly or
indirectly, to all SDG goals and the 2030
agenda (UNWTO, 2015). Apart from no
poverty (SDG1) and zero hunger (SDG2),
inclusive and sustainable economic growth
(SDG8), sustainable consumption and
production (SDG12) and the sustainable
use of oceans and marine resources
(SDG14) are the goals addressed by global
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
tourism (UNWTO, 2015). Achieving this
agenda, requires a clear implementation
framework, adequate financing and
investment in technology, infrastructure
and human resources. As many of the
conventional practices are becoming
obsolete, new strategies are required to
help the global industry to reignite its
engines, build resilience and prepare for
the new emerging realities towards
Agenda 2030. A synthesis of the existing
research and knowledge can assist to
transform tourism management and
marketing and develop smart sustainable
society strategies.
STRATEGIES TOWARDS
SMART SUSTAINABLE SOCIETY
Tourism as an activity provides individuals
with the opportunity to travel, expand
horizons, engage with different cultures,
religions, traditions, appreciate humanity
and the natural world. To cocreate value
and tourism experiences, an entire global
ecosystem has emerged offering service
and paving the way towards smart
sustainable societies. In this service
context, national, regional and local
authorities, together with residents and
tourism service providers and employees
open their destinations to welcome
visitors. They engage in the dynamic
cocreation of experiences with visitors and
the entire tourism business ecosystem.
Sharing environmental, socio-cultural and
economic
resources,
to
cocreate
experiences for visitors, generates value in
terms of employment, income, revenue,
profit and other benefits. Selling local
products and services creates additional
multiplier effects in the economy, whilst
engaging other sectors, such as agriculture,
art, culture, heritage and manufacturing.
These activities also generate sufficient
resources to invest in infrastructure and
community services, including health,
education, safety and security. When done
properly, tourism is a key strategy for
smart sustainable societies.
Smart refers to technology-empowered,
business ecosystem optimisation, that can
bring value to all stakeholders through
networking (Buhalis, 2020). This is
distinctively different from tourism
management and marketing practices of
the past that focused exclusively on the
competitiveness and profitability of
individual entities, whether destinations,
airlines, hotels or attractions. The strategic
objective of smartness in tourism is to
develop sustainable societies, supporting
all stakeholders to cocreate value. Smart
ecosystems integrate the entire range of
value chains, optimising the benefits for
the entire system. To ensure the long-term
well-being of both travellers and host
populations, tourism managers needs to
apply smart strategies to ensure the
sustainability of all resources for all
stakeholders and communities involved.
Clearly this is a major challenge for the
tourism industry, which hitherto has often
pursued self-centred approaches for short
term gains, but increasingly this will be a
prerequisite for a sustainable and balanced
future.
From the demand side, travel has become
fundamental to life, education, mental
health and ultimately the well-being of
society. Well-being (as a composite
construct that includes all the above
issues) is a keyword in the World Health
Organisation definition of health as a state
of complete physical, mental and social
wellbeing and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity. Well-being institutes a
positive state of mental health in which
people can fulfil their capabilities to
effectively deal with life stressors and
productively
contribute
to
their
communities.
The
World
Health
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
mental health can be conceptualised as a
subjective sense of well-being. Travel
clearly facilitates personal growth and
enhances well-being through physical,
psychological, or spiritual activities for the
traveller, but tourism can boost wellbeing
for host societies too (Hartwell et al, 2018;
Uysal, Sirgy, Woo, & Kim, 2016). Making
tourism an inclusive activity, by facilitating
physical, informational, financial and
emotional accessibility, towards achieving
“tourism for all”, can only be rewarding for
society, diverse communities, citizenship
rights and social justice (McCabe, 2020;
Michopoulou, and Buhalis, 2013; Buhalis
and Michopoulou, 2011; Buhalis, Ambrose,
Darcy, 2012, Buhalis and Darcy, 2011).
At the destination/supply side, innovative
planning, management and marketing are
essential tools for managing sustainable
growth (Jenkins, 2020; Hall, 2008; Costa,
2020). Technology and eTourism have
been driving innovation since the early
1990s (Buhalis, 1993, 1998, 2000, 2003,
Egger and Buhalis, 2008, Buhalis and Law,
2008). Effective information search and
providing critical information being at the
heart of tourism distribution (Gretzel,
Zarezadeh, Li, and Xiang, 2019, Paraskevas,
Katsogridakis, Law, and Buhalis, 2011;
O’Connor, 2019). Smart strategies require
leadership and knowledge management to
take advantage of interoperable systems
towards maximising the benefits for all
stakeholders (Buhalis, 2020, Spencer,
Buhalis, & Moital, 2012). Smart
technologies and methodologies are
pivotal for creating sustainable societies
(Boes, Buhalis, Inversini, 2016). Digital
transformation and smartness therefore
improve the efficiency of the entire
ecosystem and fundamentally disrupt
traditional market structures and practices
(Buhalis, Harwood, Bogičević, Viglia,
Beldona & Hofacker, 2019).
Sustainability has clearly emerged as a
lever of fairer growth for societies and a
key contributor towards competitiveness
(Ruhanen, Moyle, and Moyle, 2019;
Milano, Novelli, Cheer, 2019a; Font,
English,
Gkritzali,
Tian,
2021).
Sustainability does not only consider
environmental resources. It also addresses
economic and socio-cultural issues in the
particular context of each destination, to
support sustainable societies (Nunkoo,
Seetanah, and Agrawal 2019). Butler
(2020, p.209) suggests “continuing to
promote tourism regardless of the capacity
of destinations to handle increasing
numbers of visitors is inexcusable in the
current era of supposed sustainability”.
Politicians, development and planning
agencies as well as tourism promotion
bodies need to devise and implement
appropriate actions to balance costs and
benefits and ensure value being cocreated
for all (Butler, 2020; Hall, 1994). Smart
sustainable strategies should actively
contribute to the well-being and prosperity
of local communities and support the
distribution of value for all involved.
TOURISM AS A GLOBAL INDUSTRY IN THE
POST COVID-19 ERA
COVID-19, as the biggest global crisis since
the second world war, shone a light on the
importance of tourism worldwide. During
the pandemic, travel and tourism activities
came to a standstill as tourism, hospitality,
travel and transport companies were
forced to suspend or dramatically scale
down all operations, due to the severe
restrictions in movement and operations
(Gössling, Scott, Hall, 2020). Many
countries closed their external borders and
could only operate safe “bridges” or
“bubbles” between regions with low
epidemiological loads (Zhang, Song, Wen,
Liu,2021). The tourism industry had to
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
respond rapidly to ensure the safety and
security of consumers, employees and
communities. New health protocols were
implemented and business processes were
reengineered almost overnight to meet
new safety and security paradigms.
Operational requirements for supporting
stranded travellers and organizing
repatriations also tested resilience. A rapid
response to this unprecedented situation
and a constantly moving business
environment placed enormous pressure
on tourism organisations and governments
around the world (Hall, Scott, Gössling,
2020). This created an unprecedented
liquidity crisis, that not only affected
businesses, local, regional and national
governments and financial institutions but
also employees, suppliers and everybody
in this business ecosystem including
culture and art (Girish, 2020). COVID-19
also ignited the discussion for the
transformation of global tourism (Wen,
Kozak, Yang, and Liu, 2021; Prideaux,
Thompson, Pabel, 2020).
The entire world realised the significance
of tourism beyond the traditional
economic benefits. Tourism and travel are
directly linked to mental health and to
facilitating human connections and
interactivity. Governments at all levels also
understood the importance of tourism for
the sustainability of communities and for
supporting the livelihood of societies
around the world. Extensive lockdowns
and immobility through travel restrictions
meant that the international leisure travel
market was frozen or ceased altogether,
deferring demand to the future (WTTC,
2020). International tourism suffered
dramatically whilst destinations with
proximity to substantial markets attracted
domestic and regional clientell, using
primarily privat land transportation.
Digitisation and smart systems, where
available, were deployed to facilitate new
social distancing protocols, instantly
facilitating all processes. Those with a low
level of digitisation missed an opportunity
to test smart technologies at time of
reduced travel and failed to take full
advantage. For the first time ever,
everybody appreciated the level of
globalization of this industry and how
interconnected we all are. The urgent need
for global leadership became apparent
both in governance, industry and
academia.
Solidarity became critical for resilience and
countless of examples emerged globally.
Many
tourism
and
hospitality
organisations, with their employees,
volunteered to support hospitals and
medical structures; to provide hospitality,
food and shelter; to transport equipment
and people on behalf of the authorities;
and to support those in need. As an
industry, we have done what we always
do: offer service and care from the heart
for those that need it most. Although the
global
tourism
industry
suffered
dramatically, we also demonstrated how
resilient we are as an industry. We
exhibited
humanity
by
being
compassionate, kind, caring, considerate,
but also resourceful, improvising solutions
and being helpful towards others. After the
medical staff, hospitality’s front-line staff
demonstrated selflessness and selfsacrifice. They helped restart the
hospitality and tourism industry, and
engaged with others, exposing themselves
to high transmission risks. Many tourism
and hospitality academics around the
world also rose to the occasion. They
volunteered their services by analysing the
situation, collecting and processing data
and disseminating protocols, processes
and procedures to assist authorities and
the tourism and hospitality industries to
reignite and restart safely.
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
Oftentimes, one needs to lose something,
before fully appreciate its value. Almost
overnight, we went from 'overtourism' to
no-tourism. From people complaining and
suffering
the
consequences
of
overcrowding and the exceeding of
carrying capacity in seasonal tourism peaks
(Milano, Cheer, and Novelli, 2019) to
virtually zero travel activity and financial
disaster. COVID-19 made people across the
globe stop taking travel and tourism for
granted and appreciate how critical it is for
both consumers, industry and local
residents at destinations. It also made
politicians start comprehending the
complexity and requirements of tourism
globally.
During the COVID-19 crisis, society also had
the opportunity to reflect on practices and
way of living. A range of radical changes are
expected globally that will transform
societies, affecting the way of living,
consuming goods and travelling. One
would hope these changes will improve
quality of life and wellbeing as presented in
Table 1. The acceleration of digitisation
and adoption of smart practices challenge
work patterns and life norms, propelling
flexibility and personalisation of services,
but also pressure on performance in a
completely diffent context.
A range of new challenges emerge by
operating in the new norms, both for
individuals, organisations and societies.
The new norms assume collective
behaviour and individual responsibility,
not always evident in society. They will also
require a wide spread infostructure to
support mobility and remote teleworking
and tele-living. Digital, cultural and
organisational divides and silos need to be
addressd to reorganise patterns of work,
leisure and personal relationships. The
new norms transform traditional social
interactions, replacing them with hubrid
forms of communication, working and
living. A paradigm shift in everyday living,
altering
operational
practices,
communication protocols and decision
making in societies is unfolding. Many of
these radical changes will also have
dramatic implications for tourism and
travel and need to be addressed in future
strategies. This will bring unforeseen
opportunities, challenges and risks,
particularly for business travel and the
MICE sector. For example digital nomads
are expected to live blended lives,
exploring exotic destinations whilst stay
connected and functioning remotely.
Smart strategies will need to address those
issues and ensure sustainable societies.
TOURISM MISSION POSSIBLE: STRATEGY,
PLANNING, MANAGEMENT
Tourism has been growing steadily, in the
last 50 years, supporting many
communities around the world. In 2019,
UNWTO reported 1.5 billion international
tourist arrivals globally (UNWTO, 2020).
Domestic tourism, often not registered, is
even more relevant and has a greater
impact, especially in larger countries such
as China, USA, Canada, Brazil, Indonesia
and many others. Figure 1 and Figure 2
demonstrate that tourism has been
extremely resilient, growing at 4% per year
on average in the 2000-2020 period.
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
Pre COVID-19 Norms
Work from Office (WFO)
Post COVID-19 Norms
Work from Home (WFH)
Work from Everywhere (WFE)
Commuting and location based
Smart, multi-media, distributed based
Process focused
Agility, innovation and context based focused
Organisational structures
Distributed Networks
Rigid schedules: 9-5 vs evening, work Blended living focused on well-being and
week vs weekend, work year vs holiday
personal enlightenment
Work here-live there-play elsewhere
Flexible living spaces with multiple functions
Formality and rigidity
Authenticity and flexibility
Urbanisation and gentrification
Smart hubs and sustainable decentralised
communities
Rigid and structured learning and training Deep learning & evolving learning and training
Proprietary spaces and objects
Flexible smart sharing based on usage not
ownership
Network connectivity
Ambient intelligence and connectivity
Material and product focused
Experience and value empowered
Price pushed
Value pulled
Physical Presence
Omnipresence
Face to face meetings and conferences
Hybrid meetings and conferences
Insensitivity and selfishness
Emotional Intelligence
Distress and fatigue.
Wellbeing and Mindfulness
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
Source: UNWTO 2020, World Tourism Barometer May 2020
Figure 2 International Tourism Receipts 2000-2020
Source UNWTO 2020, World Tourism Barometer May 2020
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
Domestic tourism has been growing
dramatically as a result of improvements in
standards of living, urbanisation and
transportation infrastructure developents. Domestic tourism is critical for the
redistribution of wealth from the centre to
periphery and for ensuring that rural and
peripheral regions are supported. Tourism
growth has continued regardless a number
of crises in the past, including September
11, SARS, the Global Economic Crisis,
Brexit, the collapse of Thomas Cook,
geopolitical and social tensions and the
global economic slowdown. Almost every
region around the world attracts tourists
generating substantial economic benefits
and addressing their balance of payments.
In particular insular, coastal, mountainous,
polar and peripheral regions are often
tourism focused economies, many of
which depend on tourism for more than
50% of their GDP and employment on
tourism.
Tourism is equally critical for large and
metropolitan areas. Millions of visitors
from around the world experience
outstanding history and heritage, arts and
culture, food, star attractions and nightlife.
In London, for example, tourism and the
night-time economy contribute £36 billion
a year and employ 700,000 people. In
2019, UK tourism was the fastest growing
industry in employment terms, estimated
to be worth over £257 billion by 2025.
International tourism experienced a
dramatic fall due to COVID in 2020, with a
73% fall in visits from overseas and a 79%
fall in spending from overseas tourists
(UNWTO, 2020). More than 40 airlines
completely
ceased
or
suspended
operations due to restrictions and
collapsed demand. Although staycation
and domestic tourism increased, domestic
spending dropped by about 50% due to
lockdown, fear of socialising in hospitality
spaces, as well as recession and
employment insecurity (Keep and Ward,
2020). The devastating effects were felt
immediately everywhere in the world.
Tourism does not only contribute to the
economy. It also keeps critical services for
society viable, by supporting art, culture,
gastronomy,
attractions
and
transportation and supports
local
communities globally (McKercher, 2020;
Richards, 2019).
During COVID-19 lockdowns many of these
services were forced to close and became
inaccessible to visitors. As we moved from
“overtourism” to no-tourism many
destinations realised the value of tourism
for their communities. Not only tourism
and hospitality employees suffered, but
also artists and performers became
instantly unemployed whilst cultural
heritage attractions struggled to survive.
This threatened the viability of museums,
theatres, taxi services and even the royal
palaces. Many went bankrupt, including
the pioneering Tjapukai Aboriginal Cultural
Park in Cairns, Australia, which has
educated and entertained more than 3
million people over the past 33 years about
Australia's rich Indigenous culture since
opening in 1987. In Thailand, thousands of
elephants, as well as their keepers went
hungry; monkeys in Bali, Indonesia got
hungry and aggressive; and giraffes were
hunted for food in Kenya. Regions need to
attract visitors in order to support the
sustainability of their societies and to keep
these vital economies going, availing
communities essential services and
benefits.
Tourism growth has become inevitable,
globally. As well as more tourists seeking
more authentic experiences in new
destinations, most places around the
world also aim to attract tourism demand
in order to increase their income and
prosperity. This is the case for most regions
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
of the world, including those not
traditionally labelled as destinations, such
as urban centres (Bradford, Birmingham,
Leeds); remote regions with hostile
climates (e.g. Antarctica, Alaska, Iceland,
Greenland); tropical and sub Saharan
region (e.g. Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya,
and Mozambique); destinations with strict
religious or political practices (e.g. Saudi
Arabia) as well as industrial sites (e.g.
disaster sites, nuclear stations, battlefields,
hospitals, minefields, etc). There is also a
proliferation of smaller, purpose-built or
converted attractions/leisure facilities,
such as theme parks, staged experiences
(e.g. Canterbury Tales or London
Dungeon), agriculture farms, wineries,
potteries,
snake
farms,
factories,
traditional rebuilt villages etc. all aiming to
attract visitors and income to sustain
societies. The more remote and pecular
the resources, the more niche types of
tourism designed (Novelli, 2018).
This demonstrates the inevitability of
tourism as an economic activity, especially
for societies that have limited alternative
development options. However, to ensure
the sustainability of societies and to ensure
benefits, appropriate planning for the
macro levels and management methods
are an absolute prerequisite. It is the role
of the policy and decision makers to take
advantage of knowledge and research and
develop suitable offerings and services to
serve societies. The focus should be
tourism for communities rather than
communities for tourism. Increasingly
governments
and
international
organisations (EU, WTO, World Bank etc)
recognise tourism as the driving force of
economies and therefore are willing to
invest and to support development (Telfer
and Sharpley, 2015). Tourism development
and growth must
be
managed
professionally, ethically and responsibly.
We need to best seize the opportunities
and benefits tourism can generate for
societies around the world, whilst avoiding
the pitfalls and hazards involved. Tourism
should be developed and managed against
a comprehensive analysis of resources,
spatial distribution and geolocation data,
vulnerability of ecosystems, customer
base, patterns of use and seasonality
patterns. Tourism planning, management
and marketing strategies should be based
on a range of interlinked issues, including:
a careful investigation of alternative
development options; an analysis of
complementarity with existing economic
activities and also cultural traits; a
thorough investigation of resources and
their sensitivity; a scenario analysis of
positive and negative impacts per
destination.
Competition makes success more difficult
and destinations and enterprises will find
attracting visitors and benefits more
complex. Tourism destinations and
enterprises need to rationalise their
planning and management in order to
satisfy their main stakeholders; optimise
their tourism impacts and/or profitability;
and ensure sustainability (Fyall and Garrod,
2020, Jenkins, 2020, Costa, 2020, Costa,
Panyik, Buhalis, 2013, Costa, Panyik,
Buhalis, 2012, Novelli, 2016). Tourism
research provides a comprehensive range
of tools for tourism management and
planning. Although growing numbers have
been traditionally used to measure tourism
success, alternative outcome variables
need to be explored to evaluate tourism
(Uysal, 2019). Tourism impacts and
benefits should be measured in terms of
net economic yield; environmental and
societal contributions; quality of jobs and
stakeholders well being. Ultimately the
happiness of local residents at destinations
needs to be evaluated based on the
contribution of tourism to their quality of
life and long term prosperity.
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
THE NEED FOR A BETTER UNDERSTANDING
OF TOURISM MANAGEMENT AND
MARKETING
During the COVID-19 crisis, it became
apparent that despite its critical
importance and more than 50 years of
research in tourism, the tourism industry is
still
widely
misunderstood
and
underappreciated. Despite many people
professing expertise and engaging in both
paid and pro-bono advice, it is evident that
there is a mix bag of at times contradictory
positions in the way tourism could or
should be managed and marketed, leading
to further misunderstandings and
inadequate interventions (Novelli, 2016).
Despite the numerous attempts to address
the challenges of the industry by
researchers around the world, there is
sparse
application
of
innovative
mechanisms to address these challenges.
Often it is still unclear to policy decision
makers what need to achieve with tourism
management and marketing, planning and
sustainability. There is also insufficient
knowledge of best practice from around
the world and innovative mechanisms to
address these challenges. The gap bwteen
academic knowledge and industry
applications seems to have become wider,
with the vast majority of decision makers
appearing to have escaped the knowledge
created in tourism through academic
research. As compared with other areas of
business or science, tourism has been
broadely under-valued as a scientific area
of study. This has been partly attributed to
the young age of tourism as an area of
study, as well as the multidisciplinary
nature of this activity. As many people
have experienced the industry as
consumers, they often mistakenly feel that
they have sufficient expertise to
appreciate its complexity, or so they
believe.
As a global society, despite extensinve
academic research on the subject, very
limited full appreciation and application of
the needs and requirements of both
travellers and destination communities
exist. Although many rushed to describe
the new realities in the meta-COVID era, it
was apparent that they projected their
inner thoughts and wishes, rather than
realistic and implementable solutions.
More empirical and evidence-based
knowledge in tourism is necessary to
encourage planners, decision makers,
politicians, marketers to appreciate the
complexity of this industry (Baggio, 2020).
To ensure that we cocreate value for all
stakeholders, on a global basis, we require
a better understanding of key concepts.
The globalization of societal and economic
impacts of tourism clearly demonstrated
than unless we employ evidence-based
professional tourism methods, we will be
unable to manage this global industry and
achieve its potential contribution to
sustainable societies.
The recent cries on sustainability and
“overtourism” is perhaps new wine in old
bottles. As early as 1973, Sir George Young
(1973) warned that tourism cannot be
planned separately from other aspects of
economic and social life. This planning
must take account of national, regional
and local dimensions. Benefits of tourism
are more apparent at the national level
whilst the cost are often faced at the
regional and local level. Sir Young
predicted that the demand for travel will
continue to grow and thus the problem
tourism is facing is how to accommodate
that increasing demand without creating
severe
social,
economic
and
environmental consequences in the
reception area. A range of management
indicators were offered together with
some possible directions. He noted the
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
need for balanced development and called
for tourist authorities to act within the
context of a national plan which identifies
the role of tourism and which blends the
requirements.
Limits
on
tourism
development may need to be adopted too,
to ensure longer term prosperity (Buhalis,
1999). Unmanaged tourism growth has
inevitably in many destination resulted to
conflicts and damaged its competitiveness
(Milano, Novelli, Cheer, 2019a).
Tourism planning and management should
therefore provide a strategy for smart
sustainable societies (Boes, Buhalis,
Inversini, 2016). It is critical that conflicting
interests are examined and resolved with
mutually acceptable solutions ensuring the
compatibility of different strategies and
ensuring the long-term satisfaction of all
stakeholders.Indigenous
people
at
destinations are the most important
stakeholders, as they provide the local
resources to visitors, in exchange for
economic benefits and an improved
quality of life. Adequate returns on the
resources utilised by tourists should be
achieved. Measures should be taken to
rationalise, regulate and legislate the use
of
economic,
socio-cultural
and
environmental impacts (Buhalis, 2000a).
Tourists are looking for total satisfaction,
through properly segmented products,
which address their specialised interests
and their increasing sophistication
(Dolnicar, 2019). New sophisticated
tourists seek more authentic and themed
experiences, which enable them to pursue
their specific interests within the context
of the travel environment. Smart solutions
should support personalisation and
contextualisation in real time. They should
provide value for money but also most
importantly value for time, co-creating
nowness services and memorable
experiences (Buhalis and Sinarta, 2019)
The tourism industry drives the
development of tourism globally. The drive
for
profitability
encourages
the
development
of
amenities
and
mechanisms, facilitating the tourism
activity. The industry can be divided in two
parts: destination-based/incoming and
generating-region/outgoing industry. The
incoming industry is traditionally based
around small and family-based enterprises
that are rooted in local communities which
are themselves destinations. It often lacks
expertise, capital, global perspective,
digital
adoption,
qualified human
resources and power. Outgoing industry
tends to be multi-national, verticallyintegrated, well-resourced with capital,
expertise and power. They tend to have a
limited interest and commitment to their
chosen destinations, as they have endless
choice, and they are purely driven by
commercial profitability considerations.
Their short-term profitability drive, in
combination with the power over
governments
and
enterprises
at
destinations, enables them to force their
will, often against the long term interests
of local stakeholders. The tourism industry
at destinations depends heavily on
multinational metropolitan corporations
for tourist arrivals. Thus, they often have
no option but to follow neo-colonial types
of orders. Addressing power struggles is
critical, especially in distribution channel
relationships to minimise conflicts
(Buhalis, 2000b). Increasingly it is realised
though that
negotiated, mutually
beneficial partnerships, between all
members of the industry are essential in
order to provide seamless and specialised
tourism
products
and
increase
competitiveness in the long term, without
draining local resources. This is a
prerequisite for harmony, ensuring
residents’ quality of life and avoiding
irritation (Mihalic, 2021).
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
Governments need to play a critical role in
rationalising tourism development and
propelling smart sustainable societies
(Jenkins, 2020). They use tourism as a tool
to increase their GDP, stimulate regional
development, generate employment, and
improve the balance of payments.
However, it is often observed that
governments lack the expertise and
resources needed to develop tourism
properly. They often leave the market
forces enough freedom to determine the
pace and direction of development and
employ irrational political management,
driven by personal agendas and sometimes
by corruption (Papathanassis, Katsios, and
Dinu, (2018). In many destinations this
leads to dependency on multi-national
corporations for investment, management
and distribution of tourism, frequently
generating neo-colonial conditions. It also
leads to unsustainable practices that
damage the future of societies, create
tensions and jeopardise the interests of
weaker market players (Buhalis, 2000b). In
order to ensure that tourism is practiced
sustainably, appropriate planning and
development principles need to be applied
by governments that regulate industry and
ensure sustainability (Jenkins, 2020).
Traditionally marketing concentrates on
increasing visitation and treats tourism like
any other commodity. This approach fails
to recognise the unique needs and
limitations of each destination as well as
their
particular
geographical,
environmental
and
socio-cultural
characteristics. In contrast, planning
literature concentrates more on the
impacts of tourism and on limiting tourism
development, often ignoring the market
dynamics and the requirements of
entrepreneurs at the destination and the
place of origin (Buhalis, 1999). A balanced
approach that facilitates cocreation of
value for all stakeholders is critical.
Despite many examples of inappropriate
tourism development around the world,
several destinations are still trapped by
chasing success through maximizing the
number of arrivals. This is an inevitably
vicious cycle which destroys the very
essence of tourism, leading to value
destruction and conflicts. Tourism should
help to improve the prosperity of local
people at destinations by stimulating local
economies, developing infrastructures,
encouraging the revitalisation of cultures
and traditions. Badly planned and
inappropriate development, often driven
by political interests, human greed, and
short-term gains, generates an oversupply
of tourism facilities. As tourism grows
uncontrollably, several physical, aesthetic
and atmospheric elements of the
destination disappear damaging the
attractiveness and the competitiveness of
the destination (Buhalis, 1999, 2000a). The
carrying capacity concept encouraged the
search for a magic number of visitors that
might be approached with impunity and
exceeded at peril (Coccossis and Mexa,
2004). Wall (2020) explains that “as
experience accumulated, it was recognized
that it is simplistic to focus solely on
numbers to the exclusion of other
variables, such as type of visitor, length of
stay, activities undertaken and group
composition”. Appropriate types and
levels of tourism activity should be
therefore determined according to the
goals and objectives established through a
coherent and well orchestrated planning
process that examines all vulnerabilities
and involves all stakeholders.
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
OPTIMISING THE TOURISM ECOSYSTEM
BASED ON THE TOURISM PYRAMID
Back in the early 1990s, my doctorate
supervisor at the time Professor Chris
Cooper challenged me to help with the
development of the future of tourism
chapter, that later appeared in the first
editions of the Cooper et al, Tourism
Principles and Practice book. To analyse
trends and predict the future, we followed
Neil Leiper’s (1979) tourism system and
explored a comprehensive range of
exogenous variables that drive market
forces and determine the tourism system.
This is still critically relevant and it is still
being used to conclude the Cooper (2021)
Essentials of Tourism textbook. This
conceptual development, illustrated in the
Tourism Pyramid, determines the tourism
ecosystem as analysed and articulated in
the Encyclopedia of Tourism Management
and Marketing ontology.
The Tourism Pyramid (Figure 3) provides a
comprehensive
illustration of the
foundation required for the tourism
system to operate successfully. It
determines
the
essential
layers,
transforming tourism management and
marketing. The tourism system sits on the
top of the pyramid. Its success depends on
the robustness of the response to the
challenges experienced in each layer of the
pyramid. Smart sustainable society
strategies are required to ensure equitable
returns for the resources utilised are
achieved for all stakeholders cocreating
value in the tourism system. The global
tourism industry has emerged as an
ecosystem that bring together a range of
actors to cocreate value for all
stakeholders.
Destinations have emerged as stages that
facilitate the cocreation of memorable
experiences. By amalgamating cultures,
nature, traditions and humanity with
private and public organisations they
offering
transformative
tourism
experiences. Destinations are increasingly
recognised by consumers as flexibly
defined place brands, rather than defined
regions (Buhalis and Park, 2021). They are
interpreted subjectively by consumers,
depending on their travel itinerary, cultural
background, purpose of visit, educational
level and past experience. This is often
challenging, as from the administration
perspective, destinations are well defined
geographical areas, with formal borders
and management responsibilities. The
coordination of the six As (Attractions,
Activities,
Accessibility,
Amenities,
Available packages, and Ancillary services)
is critical for cocreating value and
maximising benefits for all stakeholders
(Buhalis, 2000a).
Intermediation and the distribution of
tourism becomes one of the most
imperative functions of tourism marketing
(Buhalis and Laws, 2001). Using technology
to communicate efficiently with target
markets and engaging on dialogue across
multiple online platforms are increasingly
pivotal
for
attracting
consumers.
Developing an omni-channel strategy, with
a range of online and offline distributors is
of paramount importance as it determines
access to markets, profit margins,
profitability and competitiveness (Buhalis
and Licata
2002).
Comprehensive
transportation systems taking advantage
of multimodality and autonomous vehicles
should make physical connectivity and
accessibility as easy and inclusive as
possible.
Resources include environmental, natural,
socio-cultural, and economic resources as
well as capital, knowledge, expertise,
education, training and technology. The
tourism system uses these resources to
address the needs of all stakeholders,
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
including indigenous people and local
residents, tourists, tourism industry, and
tourism organisations. Understanding
resources and travel patterns, is critical in
appreciating conflicts and pressure points,
towards creating an appropriate legislation
and regulation framework (Buhalis and
Sinarta, 2019) Context and real-time bigdata sets, at a granular level, determine
the success of the system (Buhalis and
Foerste, 2015).
Elaborate,
evidence-based,
multidisciplinary research is crucial to assess the
real impacts of tourism dynamically. Based
on that planners and decision makers
should develop policies to achieve four
major strategic directions, namely:
maximising co-created value for locals and
tourists; sustaining resources and making
human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable; promoting
sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all; and
maximising the profitability of tourism
enterprises in the long term (Buhalis,
1999). Ultimately, we should help societies
achieve equitable returns on resources
utilised for tourism and ensure that value
is co-created and distributed fairly and
sustainably for all stakeholders.
The tourism system is operating at the top
of the tourism pyramid. It needs to fully
address the challenges and opportunities
of marketforces and exogenous variables.
The system includes the needs, wants,
interests, abilities, disabilities of various
market segments and attract the ones it
can satisfy best. Consumers raise demand
for leisure, business, health, education and
culture related trips and travel
experiences. They rely on transportation
and intermediation entities in the transit
region to connect them with the
destination. Technology is critical to bridge
the information and also provides the
infostructure for connecting demand and
supply. On the destination region a range
of tourism organisations, typically small
and medium enterprises (SMEs) work with
local, regional and national tourism boards
and governments to coordinate their
offering and generate an inviting and well
coordinated environment. Comprehensive
planning and management strategies need
to facilitate and regulate both outbound
and inbound tourism, empowering
travellers to co-create value sustainably.
Inbound tourism involves developing a
comprehensive offering of suitable
product and services, based on destination
resources and infrastructure. Extensive
distribution channels should be supported
by communication and promotion
strategies. The industry should be
legislated and regulated based on carrying
capacity
measurements
and
vulnerabilities.
A number of dynamic market forces
determine the business environment
where tourism operates. Market forces are
fundamental for the success of tourism,
given the international nature of this
activity and the need to address multiple
legal systems, cultural and religious
contexts
and
business
practices.
Globalisation and concentration of the
industry
determine
international
regulations,
border
controls
and
facilitation. To cocreate value, strategic
alliences and and value chains need to
formulated, often through vertical,
horizontal and diagonal integration.
Perhaps most importantly, the heart of
tourism is its people. Creating decent work
and
talent
management
through
education and training are essential in
order to develop experiences as well as
create the leadership of the industry.
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
Developing decent and fair work,
compensated at the right level, is
paramount for sustainable societies.
Resilience signifies the capacity to recover
quickly from difficulties and unpredicted
situations through business continuity
measures and processes. The sector has
had to further develop its resilience, to
confront a range of crises affecting its
performance whilst protecting people,
assets and livelihoods.
A range of exogenous variables and global
trends also determine how tourism is
conducted and what are the needs and
requirements of the various stakeholders.
Consumer,
social
and
cultural
developments determine the tourism
demand. Demographic trends also address
age groups and in particular the needs of
the emerging ageing market. Segmenting
the market and providing the required
services by blending appropriate market
groups according to market contexts is
critical.
Politics
and
international
relationships determine a range of issues
including facilitation of travel and border
controls. International law and trade
agreements regulate the movement of
people and material that are part of
tourism system. A range of policies are
determined through legislation and
regulations that drive all market
interactions. Safety and security has
always been high on the agenda, with
accidents, natural disasters and terrorism
acts affecting tourism. The COVID-19
pandemic highlighted the importance of
health protocols across the entire tourism
system and the need for international
collaboration. Environmental concerns,
surrounding climate change and global
warming, are also critical as tourism needs
to address these issues through
eliminating waste and carbon neutrality.
There are several ethical and moral issues
related to tourism and those are rooted to
ideals and principles of society. Social
responsibility also needs to be addressed
with regards to quality of work and well as
inclusion and diversity. Addressing gender
equality, women at work, inclusion and
diversity are crucial for increasing
productivity and creativity, leading to
employee engagement, reduction of
employee turnover and organisational
competitiveness. Globalisation and accesss
to financial markets also influence
investments
opportunities,
capital
availability and developments of facilities
and infrastructure.
Technological innovations provide an
ever-evolving layer of info-structure.
Creating a comprehensive platform, where
all stakeholders can “plug and play” will
ensure the inclusion of all to the smart
ecosystem. That empowers smart
interactions through interoperability and
interconnectivity of networks, facilitating
the tourism ecosystem. Technology and
digital marketing are increasingly critical
for engaging all intermediaries and
consumers online, co-creating value and
developing online word of mouth through
advocates (Buhalis, 2020). Wireless
networks,
5G
and
satellite
communications empower networking and
support big data collection. Artificial
Intelligence and Machine Learning
applications lead to real time, contextbased, value cocreation and nowness
services (Buhalis and Sinarta, 2019). The
Internet of Things and the Internet of
Everything
increasingly
support
interoperability between all devices.
Digital implants and wearable technologies
gradually introduce the Internet of Bodies
and the Internet of Senses that will be
available with 6G (Ericsson, 2020). These
developments lead to personalised,
individualised,
and
contextualised
experiences supported by recommended
systems and digital assistants. In addition,
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality are
increasingly shaping innovating customer
hybrid experiences, by integrating reality,
information and constructed worlds.
Robots and Robotics as well as
autonomous vehicles and drones will bring
a paradigm shift in tourism, as their
application will be disruptive in so many
functions, processes and roles. Technology
and smart methods will increasingly
therefore determine the competitiveness
of each entity in the ecosystem.
The rapid growth of the global tourism
industry demonstrates the need for
rationalisation. A partnership between the
private and public sectors will enable the
satisfaction of the main stakeholders.
Tourism organisations and destinations
need to engage only with these markets
that are supporting their long-term
societal objectives. A thorough impact
analysis should be developed for each
target market and marketing should aim to
attract only those markets which optimise
tourism impacts. Tourism should primarily
serve indigenous people and their needs.
The focus should be on tourism for society,
rather than society for tourism. Through
adopting strategies to ensure smart
sustainable societies, tourism can fulfil its
mission and ambition. By navigating
through the entire range of tools and
methodologies,
using
smart
and
sustainable practices one can manage the
entire
system
successfully.
The
sustainability and success of tourism is
based on the equitable returns of the
resources used and the ability of all actors
to gain sufficient value in the long term.
The utilisation of local resources for
tourism consumption should be reflected
on sustainable economic and sociocultural returns for local societies. The only
constant in tourism is change. Intellect and
constant innovation become the most
important assets in enterprises. Qualified
people through education and training
should be capable to navigate through this
complexity empowering all stakeholders to
cocreate value.
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
TOURISM
MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING
The Encyclopedia of Tourism Management
and Marketing therefore harnesses cutting
edge knowledge to support students,
researchers and decision makers. The
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and
Marketing provides broad coverage as well
as sufficient depth in these areas. It is
positioned as a sibling, complementing
Jafari and Xiao’s (2021) Encyclopedia of
Tourism published by Springer. The
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and
Marketing is based on a comprehensive
ontology of more than 3000 terms. When
completed, it will consist of about 1000
alphabetically-ordered entries, covering a
comprehensive range of cutting-edge
topics. The terms were completed
between 2020 and 2021 and analyse a
wide range of topics from a global
perspective,
considering
recent
developments at the international level.
Innovative
methods
were
used
in developing the Encyclopedia. It
was designed to be utterly inclusive in
terms of entries and authors. A wide
range of channels were used to
recruit diverse terms, authors and
creatives to cocreate the content and
design. Crowdsourcing was used to
develop the ontology, identify expert
contributors and select the cover
design. Social media was extensively used
to engage with as many stakeholders
as possible.
The
Editor
was
particularly mindfull of encouraging young
academics,
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
at the beginning of their academic career,
to contribute with innovative and
contemporary terms. A diversity drive
ensured that parts of the global scientific
society had the opportunity to contribute
to this knowledge collection.
The cover of the Encyclopedia articulates
many of the messages discussed. The
picture shows people visiting the Temple
of Apollo and enjoy a memorable sunset
experience in a wonderful cultural site.
After all, people are the reason for doing
tourism and protecting treasures and
bringing value to all is what tourism
management and marketing is about. The
setting is at The Temple of Apollo [Portara|
archaeological site on Naxos Island, the
Cyclades in Greece. Portara is a huge
marble gate and the single remaining part
of an unfinished Temple of Apollo of 530
BC, the island’s emblem and main
landmark. God Apollo (Ancient Greek:
Ἀπόλλων) is the son of Zeus and Leto.
Apollo is the Olympian God of the sun and
light, arts, music and poetry, healing and
plagues, oracles, prophecy and knowledge,
intelligence, logic, reason, civilization,
order and beauty. Apollo is the God of Light
and Truth. Apollo is the patron of Delphi
and could predict prophecy through the
Delphic Oracle Pythia. An embodiment of
the Hellenic ideal of “kalokagathia”; a
derived noun, composed of two adjectives,
καλός ("beautiful") and ἀγαθός ("good" or
"virtuous"). Apollo is harmony, reason and
moderation personified, a perfect blend of
physical superiority and moral virtue.
Apollo is also the only major god who
appears with the same name in both Greek
and Roman mythology.
The selection of topics was based on their
importance and frequency in tourism
research outputs. The crowdsourcing
approach meant that authors were invited
to propose terms for inclusion to ensure
diversity and inclusiveness (KhooLattimore, 2019). To ensure the immediacy
of the project terms were released in
batches. Once they were copy-edited,
they were released online, creating
engagement with readers instantly. The
Encyclopedia will be finalised and go to
print when we have exhausted the
opportunities to include as many terms
and
contributors
as
possible.
The Encyclopedia will be published in
2022 in print, as an eBook on all of the
major eBook aggregators, and will also be
made available on Elgaronline, the
content management platform. The
Encyclopedia is naturally at home in
such an online setting, which allows
for a sophisticated search functionality
as well as direct linking to references
and sources through XML coding.
Elgaronline ensures our books enjoy
significantly
enhanced
dissemination, readership, usage and
impact.
The publication of this Encyclopedia would
not have been possible without the
support
of
many
key
people
and institutions. My deepest gratitude
goes to the authors of the entries
and
all contributors
for
their
commitment and willingness to share
their
knowledge.
I
am
very
appreciative
for
constructive
feedback to this preface from colleagues
Professor Marina Novelli and Dr
Elina Michopoulou. Finally, Edward
Elgar, and particularly our publisher
Daniel Mather and Karen Jones,
Managing Editor who have provided
immense support and encouragement
throughout
the publication process. I
very much hope that the Encyclopedia
will act as the starting point for
innovative research and best practice
journeys to support the global tourism
industry on its path to recovery. I hope
that the Encyclopedia will empower
Smart Sustainable Societies to prosper
in the future.
© Buhalis, D., 2022, Tourism Management and Marketing in Transformation: Preface, in Buhalis, D., (ed)
Encyclopedia of Tourism Management and Marketing, EDWARD ELGAR PUBLISHING (forthcoming)
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