Research articleIdentification of diverse air pollution sources in a complex urban area of Croatia
Introduction
Identification of the main sources that significantly contribute to the levels of air pollution is a sensitive and crucial task for managing air pollution that requires advanced scientific methods and tools. The source apportionment approach is used to determine pollution sources and their associated contributions to ambient air pollution levels. Commonly used source apportionment techniques include emission inventories (Belis et al., 2014), inverse modeling (Schichtel et al., 2006), artificial neural networks (Reich et al., 1999; Dawidowski et al., 2001), receptor modeling methods (Hopke, 2008; Belis et al., 2013) and air quality models (Fragkou et al., 2012; Belis et al., 2014). Among those techniques, receptor models (RMs) are the most used method for the apportionment of air pollution sources, and these models rely on mass balance analysis (MBA) and positive matrix factorization (PMF) at a receptor site. RMs are mainly applied to particulate matter (Al-Dabbous and Kumar, 2015; Pereira et al., 2017), some are analysing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Jorquera and Rappengluck, 2004; Leuchner and Rappengluck (2010) while their application to other gaseous pollutants is less represented in the literature (Leuchner and Rappengluck, 2010; Kumar et al., 2013; Sanaei et al., 2017). Different RMs have strengths and weaknesses, and their applicability to very reactive species is limited (Belis et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2013; Cesari et al., 2016). Factor analysis models incorporating meteorological data are available to better illustrate source contributions associated with wind directions (Chan et al., 2011; Xiang et al., 2012; Argyropoulos et al., 2017). Hopke (2016) provided a review of the receptor modeling methods for source apportionment, mainly of aerosols, including methods that use local wind data: probability density function (PDF) and conditional probability function (CPF) (Kim and Hopke, 2004; Zhou et al., 2010), nonparametric regression (Kim and Hopke, 2004; Yu et al., 2004), and nonparametric wind regression (Henry et al., 2009). Yu et al. (2004) reported that SO2 can be used as a tracer for aircraft emissions, while its other sources can be separated based on wind direction and speed using nonparametric regression. Conditional bivariate polar plots (CBPF) are an advancement in the CPF receptor modeling method that shows how the concentration of a species varies jointly with wind speed and wind direction in polar coordinates. CBPF were successfully applied in a range of settings to characterize airport sources and dispersion characteristics in street canyons (Carslaw et al., 2006; Tomlin et al., 2009; Carslaw and Ropkins, 2012). However, without applying source apportionment techniques such as PMF or CMB, it is not possible to obtain reliable quantitative information on the contribution of specific sources. Therefore, a combination of different approaches might be able to provide holistic information about pollution sources in the complex urban/industrial areas.
Here, the city of Slavonski Brod in Croatia has been chosen since it is known for air quality problems (e.g., Jeričević et al., 2016) over an extended period and hence is in great need of air quality management (detailed information on air quality in Slavonski Brod are provided in Supplementary Information, SI, Section S2).
Urban areas with neighboring large industrial sources (and separated by the state border), such as the one studied in this work, are always challenging for air pollution management and emission control strategies (Kucbel et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017). Although point sources are generally quantitatively the largest emission sources, their contributions to the measured concentrations cannot be easily determined. Considering the substantial problems that exist in the city of Slavonski Brod, the aim of this work is to apply different source apportionment techniques in a polluted complex area with various emission sources, including an oil refinery. The source identification of both PM and much less reported gaseous pollutants here is carried out using (i) a comprehensive temporal analysis of measured pollutants and their relation to meteorological parameters over a four-year period between 2011 and 2014 in the city of Slavonski Brod, (ii) the analysis of quantified emissions from diverse urban sources in the city of Slavonski Brod and from refinery, (iii) the receptor modeling methods based on the CBPF and PMF, and (iv) chemical analysis of the PM2.5 composition during 2015.
Numerous studies have mainly applied RMs to PM. Here, we use standard PMF for PM and aim to further explore the applicability and properties of the CBPF receptor method for gaseous pollutants and investigate the importance of meteorological factors when added to receptor modeling to assess the ambient concentration in the chosen complex urban and industrial area.
Section snippets
Study area and monitoring data
The city of Slavonski Brod has a total population of approximately 60,000 people and is located on relatively flat terrain in eastern Croatia. Surrounded by Dilj Hill (461 m above ground level) to the north and Sava River to the south, the city is also located on the national border with Bosnia and Herzegovina (Fig. 1).
The urban monitoring site, Slavonski Brod (45.6° N and 17.59° E), is a part of a national monitoring network for continuous air quality monitoring maintained by the National
Relationship of diurnal and annual variations in pollutant concentrations with anthropogenic activities
Qualitative evaluation of the impact of anthropogenic sources to all the measured pollutants can be obtained by an understanding of (i) the temporal (e.g., diurnal and annual) variability of pollutant concentrations and (ii) the amount to which the pollutant concentrations follow human activity. It should be pointed that time series of pollutant concentrations may give a hint to sources to some extent, but they are largely modulated by the likely superposition of various sources of different
Discussion
According to the results of all analyses, major identified sources of air pollution in Slavonski Brod are biomass burning (domestic heating), industry (mainly refinery), traffic, and natural sources (resuspension and long-range transport). Meteorological conditions (SABL) that significantly affect the ambient level of pollutants are added as an important factor as in these conditions accumulation of concentration from different local sources is enhanced contributing to the occurrence of peaks
Summary and conclusions
We used a combination of different source apportionment approaches to identify the sources of PM2.5, H2S, NO2 and SO2 in a polluted complex urban area of Croatia that are important for successful air pollution assessment and management. In addition to CBPF and PMF receptor models, source apportionment was carried out using other methods such as (i) a comprehensive temporal analysis of measured pollutants and their relation to meteorological parameters over a four-year period between 2011 and
Acknowledgements
The Meteorological and Hydrological Service in Croatia and the Croatian Agency for Environment and Nature are thanked for providing the data. Prashant Kumar acknowledge the support received through the Research England funding under the Global Challenge Research Fund (GCRF) programme for the project CArE-Cities: Clean Air Engineering for Cities.
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